Service dog selection tests: Effectiveness for dogs from animal shelters

Emily Weiss, Gary Greenberg

Service dog selection tests: Effectiveness for dogs from animal shelters

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 53, Issue 4, July 1997, Pages 297–308

Abstract

Assistance dogs are trained to help people with various physical and mental handicaps. These dogs are selected using a test comprising several behavioral components. Anecdotal reports have shown that only about 50% of the dogs so selected successfully complete training and become assistance dogs. Traditionally training centers had used puppies, but recently some trainers have begun to use dogs from animal shelters and pounds. This study randomly chose six males and three female adult dogs of appropriate breed types, from a shelter environment and conducted an 11-item selection test on each. The dogs were then trained in both basic obedience and a retrieval task. We found no correlation between an animals' overall performance on the selection test and its ability to complete the retrieval task. One behavior trait, fear/submission, however, was predictable from the selection phase.

The effects of structured sessions for juvenile training and socialization on guide dog success and puppy-raiser participation

Lara Batt, BAgSc (Hons), Marjolyn Batt, RN, DMU, John Baguley, BVSc (Hons) MACVScMBA, Paul McGreevy, BVSc, PhD, MRCVS, Cert (AS) CABC, Grad Cert H. Ed, MACVSc (Animal Welfare)

The effects of structured sessions for juvenile training and socialization on guide dog success and puppy-raiser participation

Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, Volume 3, Issue 5, September–October 2008, Pages 199–206

Abstract

This study examined 60 juvenile Labrador (LR) and golden retrievers (GR) and their puppy raisers (PR) to determine the effect of training (n = 20) and socialization (n = 20) compared with a control group (n = 20). These potential guide dogs were randomly allocated into 3 groups of 20 (2 treatment groups and 1 control). Training sessions ran for 6 weeks (only 5 of which were attended by the dogs), and socialization groups ran for 5 weeks (all of which were attended by the dogs). Training involved teaching a bridge (clicker); basic obedience behaviors including sit, drop, loose-leash walking, and recalls; as well as desensitization to handling, discussions about anxiety and environmental enrichment, and play time. Socialization classes covered the same discursive material, but without the training and bridge components. The control group comprised other pups and their PRs within the guide dog puppy-raising program but who were not given access to these additional classes. Like the dogs in both the treatments, these control dogs also underwent the Guide Dog NSW/ACT program but received no direct intervention through the current study.

The authors hypothesized that training and socialization would improve the success rates of dogs in the guide dog program. However, the treatments did not influence the rate of success nor the likelihood of PRs raising a subsequent pup. The interaction between color and sex had some effect on success rates; yellow female LRs had the greatest chance of success, and female GRs had the lowest chance of success. This difference may warrant further investigation in a broader study to assist in decisions as to which breeds and sexes are most successful in guide dog organizations.

Describing categories of temperament in potential guide dogs for the blind

Julie A Murphy

Describing categories of temperament in potential guide dogs for the blind

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 58, Issues 1–2, June 1998, Pages 163–178

Abstract

Trainers at the Royal Guide Dogs Associations of Australia (RGDAA) assess 12-month-old potential guide dogs for 20 categories of temperament after walking and observing each dog over 5 days in increasingly complex environments. The present study investigated how trainers interpret these temperament categories from the canine behaviour observed. Dogs were videotaped by the author on their final assessment walk. Trainers who had no prior knowledge of the dogs on the videotapes observed the tapes and pointed out segments which, in their opinion, showed dogs expressing particular categories of temperament. One hundred and two segments of tape were isolated and examined in detail. The elements of behaviour observed in each segment were noted. Descriptions or `indicator sets' were determined for nine temperament categories. Each set lists the elements of behaviour shown by dogs in 60%–69%, 70%–79% and ≥80% of cases. Indicator sets were not determined for categories that were rarely identified by trainers, rarely observed in dogs, or which could not be assessed from a single videotaped walk. Although each indicator set was unique, some elements of behaviour were common to more than one set. Therefore, it is best to interpret temperament categories from many elements of behaviour rather than just one or two. If adopted by other guide dog associations, the indicator sets derived from this study may be useful in standardising the identification and assessment of temperament categories of potential guide dogs by avoiding anthropomorphism or misinterpretation of dogs' behaviour.

Development of play behavior between potential guide dogs for the blind and human raisers

N. Koda

Development of play behavior between potential guide dogs for the blind and human raisers

Behavioural Processes, Volume 53, Issues 1–2, 13 March 2001, Pages 41–46

Abstract

This study shows longitudinal development of human-dog interactions in a guide dog raising program. Social play interactions between potential guide dogs for the blind (puppies) and their adult female raisers (PWs) were videotaped at home during the period from two months to 11 or 12 months of the puppies’ age. The puppies and PWs established close proximity relationships by two to three months of age. The older the puppies became, the shorter time the puppies and PWs spent in intensive fighting and chasing play. The older the puppies became, the longer the puppies and PWs spent in waiting, seeking and possessing together play which needed the puppies’ self-control, concentration and ability to cooperate with the PWs. Whether or not these behavioral tendencies which the puppies showed were appropriate for guide dog candidates is also discussed.

Factors associated with success in guide dog training

Lara S. Batt, Marjolyn S. Batt, John A. Baguley, Paul D. McGreevy

Factors associated with success in guide dog training

Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, Volume 3, Issue 4, July–August 2008, Pages 143–151

Abstract

Tests of motor laterality and behavioral reactivity, as well as salivary cortisol concentrations, were examined in this pilot study to identify dogs best suited to guide dog work. Over a 14-month period, lateralization tests were conducted and cortisol concentrations were determined on 3 separate occasions, and temperament testing was performed on 2. Potential guide dogs (N = 43) involved in this study were 5 golden retrievers (4 males, 1 female) and thirty-eight Labrador retrievers (8 black males, fifteen yellow males, 5 black females, and ten yellow females). Results from these tests were then compared with the ultimate success of the dogs in the Guide Dogs NSW/ACT training program. This comparison produced evidence that motor lateralization (particularly the rate at which both paws were used during the Kong Test and the lateralization index during the Tape Test), reactions to an unfamiliar dog, the latency for dogs to drop and rest during an uninterrupted period, and the dog's color and breed were predictive of ultimate success. This study also identified 14 months of age as a more accurate time to assess dogs for these traits than either 6 months of age or at the age at which they completed their training (ranging from 14 to 20 months of age).

Co-operative interactions between blind persons and their dogs

Sz Naderi, Á Miklósi, A Dóka, V Csányi

Co-operative interactions between blind persons and their dogs

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 74, Issue 1, 11 September 2001, Pages 59–80

Abstract

In two studies, we have investigated the co-operative behaviour between dogs and their owners. We supposed that co-operative behaviour is an inherited trait in dogs, and is a major contributing factor in the development of successful guide dog performance. According to our view, leading a blind person involves complex behaviour where success depends on the ability of the participants to synchronise their actions. In Study I, we observed both British and Hungarian blind owners taking a half-hour walk in their neighbourhood. In Study II, both guide dogs with their blind and pet dogs with their blind-folded owners had to master an obstacle course. Measuring the frequency of initiations of various actions during leading their owners, dogs did not keep the role of the initiator to themselves. However, both dogs and humans were found to initiate more often in some types of actions, for example, guide dogs initialised avoidance or stepping up more often than their owners. Further, the role of the initiator was kept only for short durations, longer sequences of initialising were rare.

Despite many differences among groups studied, we observed some qualitative similarities in the co-operative behaviour of dogs. We assume that during domestication, dogs have been selected for the ability to change to-and-fro the role of the initiator that seems to be fundamental in this type of co-operation. In the case of leading the blind, information should not only be provided but also accepted by both parties in the course of the joint actions, therefore, the leadership (the role of the initiator) may vary form one action to the next.

The response of dogs to attentional focus of human beings: A comparison between guide dog candidates and other dogs

Mariko Yamamoto, Nobuyo Ohtani, Mitsuaki Ohta

The response of dogs to attentional focus of human beings: A comparison between guide dog candidates and other dogs

Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, Volume 6, Issue 1, January–February 2011, Pages 4–11

Abstract

Dogs that are trained without dependence on the attentional focus of human beings (experimental group: a guide dog and guide dog candidates) were compared with those trained with the usual level of attentional focus (control group: a service dog, service dog candidates, a search and rescue dog, and pet dogs) to examine whether the ability of a dog to read the attentional focus of a human being was influenced by guide dog training. An experimenter commanded the dogs to sit using several predetermined postures, which included the direction of the experimenter’s head, eyes, and body. The results indicated that there were no statistical differences between the 2 groups. Dogs from both the groups gave a significantly reduced response to commands when the experimenter’s head was not oriented toward them, response to commands was not affected by the direction of the experimenter’s eyes or body. This study suggests that the ability of a dog to read the attentional focus of a human being is not affected by guide dog training.

Genetics of traits which determine the suitability of dogs as guide-dogs for the blind

M.E. Goddard, R.G. Beilharz

Genetics of traits which determine the suitability of dogs as guide-dogs for the blind

Applied Animal Ethology, Volume 9, Issues 3–4, January 1983, Pages 299–315

Abstract

The most important traits causing dogs to be rejected as unsuitable for training as guide-dogs were found to be fearfulness, being too easily distracted, especially by other dogs, and aggressiveness. The guide-dog trainers evaluate these traits and several others using a series of 17 scores. The between-trainer repeatability of these scores varied from 0 to 0.7. Factor analysis of these 17 scores yielded 5 factors, which can be labelled distraction, general performance, sensitivity, fearfulness and fearfulness accompanied by high activity. There were no negative correlations between desirable traits, so it should be possible to obtain an overall improvement in the performance of the dogs. Comparison of dogs from the breeding programme of the Royal Guide Dogs for the Blind Association of Australia with dogs donated to the Association as puppies showed that the breeding programme had improved the dogs in the 3 important traits. Also, dogs reared under the supervision of the Association were superior to dogs donated as adults in these 3 traits. Females were more fearful and distracted by scents but less aggressive and distracted by dogs than males. There was significant genetic variation for fearfulness and possibly for dog distraction, suggesting that future selection on these criteria will further improve the standard of the dogs. These 17 scores, which are given early in a dog's training, have little ability to predict the dog's final performance on specific tasks but they do correlate with the overall reliability of fully trained dogs.

Development of the attachment bond in guide dogs

Paola Valsecchi, Emanuela Prato Previde, Pier Attilio Accorsi, Gaia Fallani

Development of the attachment bond in guide dogs

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 123, Issues 1–2, February 2010, Pages 43–50

Abstract

This study investigates ontogenetic aspects of attachment behaviour in guide dogs using the Strange Situation Test (SST). Seventeen dogs were tested three times in different periods of the guide dog training program. The first test was carried out when the dogs were 11–15 months old and before entering the training program; the second test took place after 4 months of training; the last test was carried out after more than 1 year of service as guide dogs. Therefore three different human figures were involved in the program: the puppy walker, the trainer and the blind owner. In each test the dogs’ behaviour was video recorded and subsequently scored using a 5-s point sampling method; furthermore heart rate (HR) was recorded both before (HR basal average) and during the SST.

Results of the present study show that when tested for the first time at the age of 11 months, dogs exhibited an intense play activity and a limited discrimination of the attachment figure: during separation from the puppy walker their attention was directed towards the stranger that could offer comfort rather than to the owner's exit from the room. On the contrary, the same dogs tested when adult, after 1 year of life with the blind owner were specifically interested in regaining contact with their owner despite the presence of another friendly human (the stranger) available for support. The three repetitions of the SST had only a limited impact on dogs behaviour: previous experiences with the room and the procedure of the test did determine a decrease of exploratory behaviour and of puppet fear, but not of the emotional response to separation from the owner. As the heart rate curve was available only for a limited number of dogs cautious conclusions are drawn on cardiac activity: when adult, dogs showed a higher cardiac activation despite a decrement in HR baseline. Overall, the outcome of the present study indicate that a full-fledged attachment is showed when guide dogs reach maturity and that repeated bond breaking is not detrimental to forming attachment later in life.

Behavioral and physiological responses of guide dogs to a situation of emotional distress

Gaia Fallani, Emanuela Prato Previde, Paola Valsecchi

Behavioral and physiological responses of guide dogs to a situation of emotional distress

Physiology & Behavior, Volume 90, Issue 4, 16 March 2007, Pages 648–655

Abstract

The aim of this study was to analyze the behavioral and physiological reactions of guide dogs in a distressing situation which promotes attachment behaviors towards their blind owners, and to compare such reactions with those of untrained or trainee dogs.

The subjects were 57 adult Labrador and Golden retriever dogs (14 males, 43 females) belonging to four different groups: 19 Custody dogs, 13 Apprentice dogs, 10 Guide dogs and 15 Pet dogs. Dogs were tested using the Strange Situation Test, consisting in seven 3-minute episodes in which the dogs were placed in an unfamiliar environment, introduced to an unfamiliar woman and subjected to separation from their human companion. Tests were video-recorded and behaviors were scored using a 5-second point sampling method. Polar Vantage telemetric system was used to record cardiac activity.

ANOVAs for repeated measures with groups and breeds as independent variables, showed a more anxious reaction in pet dogs, which revealed a high degree of proximity seeking behavior. Cardiac activity increased during episodes characterized by the exclusive presence of the stranger, but this increase was more conspicuous in guide dogs than in custody and apprentice dogs. Golden retrievers showed more behaviors suggesting distress compared to Labrador retrievers.

This study showed that guide dogs, when separated from their blind owner, reveal a controlled behavioral reaction that is however accompanied by a stronger cardiac activation.

Relationships between puppy management practices and reported measures of success in guide dog training

Lara Batt, Marjolyn Batt, John Baguley, Paul McGreevy

Relationships between puppy management practices and reported measures of success in guide dog training

Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, Volume 5, Issue 5, September–October 2010, Pages 240–246

Abstract

This study surveyed international guide dog organizations to compare their success rates with management practices. A questionnaire designed to identify the factors associated with international guide dog success was piloted with the cooperation of Guide Dogs NSW/ACT. The International Guide Dog Federation endorsed the study before the questionnaire was sent to 76 of its member organizations from 27 countries. There were 38 responses (of which 36 were usable) from guide dog organizations in 15 countries (50% response rate). Guide dog success rates were defined by the dogs' graduating success (the proportion of dogs commencing the program that successfully graduated as guide dogs) as well as working success (the proportion of dogs commencing the program that were working 1 year later). Working success and graduating success were found to be significantly different. Working success was considered the more informative estimate of true success, as it incorporated more variables than did graduating success.

Quotas were used by many organizations to ensure that dogs graduated in sufficient numbers to meet the demand from visually impaired clientele. Despite our hypothesis that quotas would artificially inflate graduating success rates, logistic regression found that they were not associated with differences in graduating success rates, but that they were associated with greater working success. This finding indicates that quotas are not set at unrealistic levels and may help improve long-term success rates. Logistic regression also showed that dog breeds, the application of different temperament tests, the use of external breeders (as opposed to the organization breeding their own dogs), and the methods used to acquire information about the dogs during the puppy-raising period were significantly associated with these outcomes.

Survey of undesirable behaviors displayed by potential guide dogs with puppy walkers

Angelo Gazzano, Chiara Mariti, Claudio Sighieri, Michele Ducci, Carlo Ciceroni, Elizabeth Anne McBride

Survey of undesirable behaviors displayed by potential guide dogs with puppy walkers

Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, Volume 3, Issue 3, May–June 2008, Pages 104–113

This research aimed to identify the frequency and type of undesirable behaviors observed by guide dog puppy walkers and management strategies used by them during the puppy-walking period.

All members of 36 puppy-walking families (N = 96), recruited from the National School of Guide Dogs for Blind People in Florence (Italy), completed an 80-item questionnaire. This sampling represented homes caring for 28 Labrador retrievers, 6 Golden retrievers, and 2 German shepherd dogs. Of these dogs, 47.2% (n = 17) were males and 52.8% (n = 19) females, and 66.7% (n = 24) were between 7 and 12 months old.

Three categories of undesirable behaviors were recorded. First, behaviors considered inconsequential to the guide dog role were: digging (11.8%, n = 11); chewing objects (4.4%, n = 4); stealing or begging for food (3.1%, n = 3); licking people (5.9%, n = 5); getting on furniture (4.4% n = 4); defending territory (2.8%, n = 2); and coprophagia (5.9%, n = 5). Second, the following behaviors considered easily resolvable through training were recorded: lack of recall (8.9%, n = 10); pulling on lead (11.8%, n = 11); jumping up (28.1%, n = 30); barking at other dogs (5.9%, n = 5); chewing the leash (1.5%, n = 1); and house soiling (5.9% (n = 5). Third, these potentially disqualifying behaviors were observed: scavenging (17.7%, n = 17); aggressive barking, growling, and biting (10.4%, n = 10); and fear of thunderstorms (6.2%, n = 6); loud noises (32.3%, n = 31); men (2.1%, n = 2); women (3.1%, n = 3); and people with unusual clothes (6.2%, n = 6). None of the puppies was reported to be fearful of children.

Overall, 67.7% (n = 66) of respondents recorded at least 1 undesirable behavior. However, only few of them might lead to disqualification. The results suggest that most of the puppies were well socialized to people and not fearful.

Puppy walkers could contribute to the early assessment of potential behavioral problems, which are a major cause of disqualifying guide dogs.

Early prediction of adult behaviour in potential guide dogs

M.E. Goddard, R.G. Beilharz

Early prediction of adult behaviour in potential guide dogs

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 15, Issue 3, June 1986, Pages 247–260

Abstract

Between 4 weeks and 6 months of age, dogs were subjected to a battery of behavioural tests. The ability of these tests to predict fearfulness, activity and learning ability of the dogs when adult was assessed. Consistent individual differences in fearfulness were apparent at about 8 weeks of age, and the ability to predict adult fearfulness increased with age. The most useful tests involved responses to a strange person, a strange dog, a strange place and certain unusual objects. There appears to be genetic variation between dogs in fearfulness when young, but genetic selection against fearfulness would be more accurate if carried out in adult dogs rather than in young dogs. Consistent individual differences in activity from 4 weeks of age were found, but this behaviour correlated poorly with the activity of the dogs when adult. Puppies responded to fear by inhibiting movement. None of the tests used predicted the dogs' performance on specific learning tasks.

Do disrupted early attachments affect the relationship between guide dogs and blind owners?

Gaia Fallani, Emanuela Prato Previde, Paola Valsecchi

Do disrupted early attachments affect the relationship between guide dogs and blind owners?

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 100, Issues 3–4, November 2006, Pages 241–257

Abstract

The study investigated the affectional bond developed by dogs (Canis familiaris) towards their human companions during the selection process to become guide dogs and compared this bond with that formed by pet dogs with their owners. One hundred and nine dog-owner pairs were tested using a modified version of the Strange Situation Test: custody dogs-puppy walkers (n = 34), apprentice dogs-trainers (n = 26), guide dogs-blind owners (n = 25) and pet dogs-owners (n = 24).

Twenty-six behaviours were scored using a 5 s point sampling method and two vocal behaviours were recorded as bouts. Factor analysis carried out on 24 mutually exclusive behaviours highlighted two different profiles of response. A relaxed reaction characterised by a high play activity was distinctive of custody and apprentice dogs, whereas an anxious reaction characterised by a high degree of proximity seeking behaviours was distinctive of pet dogs. Guide dogs were intermediate between these two extremes, expressing their attachment to the owners but showing a more controlled emotional reaction. This finding suggests that guide dogs can be viewed as “working pets”. Furthermore, the experimental set-up, characterised by the presence of a frightening stimulus, revealed that untrained dogs (pets and custody dogs) were more fearful than trained dogs (guide dogs and apprentice dogs). Finally, differences in temperament emerged between retrievers: Golden retrievers showed a higher level of affection demand while Labrador retrievers were more playful. Overall, these findings show that in spite of separations from previous attachment figures, guide dogs established with their blind owner a rather good and secure affectional bond.