Behaviour of smaller and larger dogs: Effects of training methods, inconsistency of owner behaviour and level of engagement in activities with the dog

Behavior of Smaller and Larger Dogs

Christine Arhant, Hermann Bubna-Littitz, Angela Bartels, Andreas Futschik, Josef Troxler

Behaviour of smaller and larger dogs: Effects of training methods, inconsistency of owner behaviour and level of engagement in activities with the dog

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 123, Issues 3–4, March 2010, Pages 131–142

Abstract

The owner's behaviour is regarded to be a possible cause of unfavourable behaviour such as poor obedience or excitability in smaller dogs. The aim of this study was to investigate whether owner behaviour such as use of training methods, inconsistency in the owner's behaviour or engagement in shared activities differs between owners of smaller (<20 kg) and larger dogs (≥20 kg) and whether associations between the owner's and the dog's behaviour in smaller dogs differ from those in larger dogs. For this purpose, a questionnaire-based survey via postal mailing was conducted in an urban and suburban population of pet dog owners (response rate: 28%). Statistical analysis of 1276 questionnaires involved descriptive statistics, Chi²-test, t-tests and Spearman correlations. Our results confirm that smaller dogs are seen as less obedient (P < 0.001), more aggressive and excitable (P < 0.001) and more anxious and fearful (P < 0.001). Smaller dog owners reported being more inconsistent in interactions with their dog (P < 0.001) and engaging less in training and play activities (P < 0.001) than larger dog owners. More consistent owner behaviour (r_s = −0.4, P < 0.001) and more frequent engagement in training and play activities (r_s = 0.4, P < 0.001) correlated with better obedience in smaller dogs. No marked differences were found in the types of training methods used with smaller and larger dogs, but owners of smaller dogs reported slightly less use of punishment (P = 0.007). In smaller and larger dogs, a more frequent use of punishment was associated with increased aggression and excitability (smaller: r_s = 0.3, P < 0.001; larger: r_s = 0.2, P < 0.001) as was a more frequent use of reward-based responses to unwanted dog behaviour such as calming or distracting the dog (r_s = 0.2, P < 0.001). The main result of our study was that increased anxiety and fear was related to a more frequent use of punishment in smaller (r_s = 0.2, P < 0.001) but not in larger dogs. We conclude that smaller dog owners could significantly improve obedience in their dogs by being more consistent in interactions and engaging regularly in play and training activities with them. Behavioural problems could be reduced by avoiding habits of punishment that might reinforce fear or fear-related aggression.

Understanding the genetic basis of canine anxiety: phenotyping dogs for behavioral, neurochemical, and genetic assessment

Dogs and Separation Anxiety

Karen L. Overall, MA, VMD, PhD, Steven P. Hamilton, MD, PhD, Melanie Lee Chang, PhD

Understanding the genetic basis of canine anxiety: phenotyping dogs for behavioral, neurochemical, and genetic assessment

Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, Volume 1, Issue 3, November–December 2006, Pages 124–141

Introduction: the Canine Behavioral Genetics Project (CBGP)

Behavioral problems account for the death, relinquishment, or the end of breeding careers of more dogs than does any other set of problems ( [Miller et al 1996], [Patronek et al 1996], [Salman et al 1998] and [Salman et al 2000]; Scarlett et al., 1999; [Shore et al 2003], [Mondelli et al 2004] and [Shore 2005]). Whereas many behavioral complaints involve management-related issues or dog-human temperament mismatches, the behavioral concerns that are most interesting to scientists and breeders alike are those with familial patterns.

A number of conditions have been identified as running in family lines of a number of breeds including, but not restricted to, generalized anxiety/fear, noise phobia, impulse/control aggression, conspecific aggression, predatory aggression, and obsessive-compulsive disorder ( [Overall 1994], [Overall and Dunham 2002] and [Overall 2005]). Most of these conditions appear sometime between one and two years of age, the social maturity period, during which neural systems are undergoing extensive developmental changes. The potential benefit of genetic counseling is clear, and the potential to make dogs “safer” and happier is substantial. Understanding the genetic bases of behavioral problems will lead to more humane treatment of dogs, fewer public health risks, an improved public perception of dogs as pets, and a considerable lessening in the recycled pet problem. Additionally, elucidation of the biological systems underlying pathological behavior will heighten our general understanding of the underlying molecular biology of behavior, allowing the dog to contribute to this rapidly evolving field.

Over 50 breeds across all seven AKC groups have family lines in which “fear/shyness/nervousness/panic/anxiety” is a major breeder-reported concern (Overall, unpublished). Within these breeds, this “trait” often follows familial lines, suggesting a heritable basis. This pattern has been noted for many physical conditions in dogs ( [Sutter et al 2004] and [Lark et al 2006]), but little emphasis has been placed on behavioral conditions because of the difficulty in defining a clear phenotype. Although recognition of other genetically mediated conditions is often straightforward, based on easily observable clinical phenomena that are defined by consensus (e.g., cancer, retinopathies, narcolepsy), assignment of behavioral phenotypes can be open to misclassification or misinterpretation ( [Overall 2005] and [Overall and Burghardt 2006]).

The broad goal of the CBGP is to explore the genetic background of anxiety-related behavioral problems in dogs. To do so, we must: (1) solicit the participation of owners of candidate dogs possibly affected by anxiety-related behavioral problems; (2) identify affected and unaffected dogs, using the necessary and specific diagnostic criteria to make a diagnosis of the condition; (3) confirm the presence of the relevant diagnosis in these dogs and if possible in their family lines, using reliable, repeatable, and validated behavioral measures involving questionnaires and videos; and (4) obtain DNA samples for genetic linkage and association analyses, along with the relevant pedigrees. In this article, we discuss the distinction between diagnosis and phenotype, and we describe our protocol for assessing behavioral phenotypes in dogs, addressing the second and third aspects of our project just discussed.

Owners' perception of food flavor preferences of pet dogs in relation to measured preferences of laboratory dogs

Dog Food Flavor Preference

Sharon L. Smith, David S. Kronfeld, Charles A. Banta

Owners' perception of food flavor preferences of pet dogs in relation to measured preferences of laboratory dogs

Applied Animal Ethology, Volume 10, Issues 1–2, March 1983, Pages 75–87

Abstract

In this study, food flavor preferences were examined in pet dogs and in laboratory dogs by feeding the same foods to each group; 3 specially formulated dry foods differing only in flavor. Three panels of laboratory dogs were given choices between 2 of the test foods, and their preferences were determined from quantities eaten. Sixty pet dogs were given the test foods by their owners in the manner dry food was usually served. The owners rated their perception of the dog's response to each test food by using a standard rating scale.

The laboratory dogs preferred some test foods over others. The pet-dog owners interpreted their dogs' responses as indicating no preference for any test food over any other, although individual owners' interpretations did vary. Some variables were examined in the pet dogs as a function of the variation in their perceived responses to the test foods. Variables were selected from diverse aspects of pet dogs; physical characteristics, feeding regime, behavior toward food, physical and social environments. Of the variables examined, only the dog's sex was associated with preferences for 2 of the test foods. None of the variables were associated with preferences for all 3 foods. Several were associated with preferences for only one food. The results of this study indicated a need to examine typical feeding behavior in pet dogs within the context of the home, and suggested several variables that appear to influence food flavor preferences.

Consistency of dogs’ reactions to threatening cues of an unfamiliar person

Judit Vas, József Topál, Borbála Győri, Ádám Miklósi

Consistency of dogs’ reactions to threatening cues of an unfamiliar person

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 112, Issues 3–4, August 2008, Pages 331–344

Abstract

Reliability is one of the most important aspects of the behaviour observations measuring personality traits in animals. The most fundamental way to test reliability is the assessment of the test–retest consistency. On the other hand, in situations where social interaction between a human participant and the animal subject is at the scope of the study, the behaviour of the humans in the test situation should be restricted by a set of rules. However, if more than one experimenter participates in the observations, the similarity of the behaviour of different persons is an important aspect of the reliability of the study.

In our first study we investigated the consistency of dogs’ behaviour during approach by a person in a friendly and in a threatening way, repeating the test either immediately after the first test or at least 6 months later. We found that the dogs’ sensitivity to the human's behavioural cues in this situation proved to be consistent over repetition when the second test was performed approximately 1 year after the first test, but it was not the case when the time elapsed between test occasions was a few seconds. The detailed analysis indicated that dogs performing extreme behaviour (friendly or threatening) tended to show more conservative responses than dogs showing intermediate reactions when the stranger approached threateningly. Nonetheless, the reaction of the dogs failed to be in accordance with the opinion of the owners about the dogs’ behaviour in similar situations in everyday life.

In the second study we examined the consistency of the dogs’ behaviour in the same situation when confronted with two different unfamiliar persons immediately after each other. The consistency of the dogs’ response to the two experimenters was found to be reliably high.

In sum, this test procedure proved to be reliable enough to be a valuable measure of a definite part of the personality characters of dogs.

Dog attachment to man: A comparison between pet and working dogs

Chiara Mariti, Eva Ricci, Beatrice Carlone, Jane L. Moore, Claudio Sighieri, Angelo Gazzano

Dog attachment to man: A comparison between pet and working dogs

Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, Available online 26 October 2012

Abstract

Shared activities are known to create a good relationship between dog and man. Therefore, it can be expected that animals working in harness with their handlers, such as search and rescue dogs, show a higher attachment to man.

The aim of the current research was to assess whether there are differences between pet and working dogs in the attachment to owners/handlers.

Forty dogs were involved, 26 pets and 14 search and rescue dogs (taken home when not working). Their attachment to owners/handlers was analyzed by using a modified version of the Ainsworth Strange Situation Test and a recall test, while owners and handlers filled in a questionnaire and were scored on the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale.

Statistical analysis revealed no statistically significant differences between pet and working dogs for behaviors indicating an attachment bond: behavior oriented to door/chair/shoe during the absence of owner/handler (which represents “search of absent person”; U = 132.000, P = 0.156), contact with/proximity to owner/handler (i.e., “contact maintenance effect”; U = 157.000, P = 0.478), whining during owner's/handler's absence (“protest at the separation”; U = 147.000, P = 0.288), and individual play (U = 146.000, P = 0.288) and exploration (U = 138.500, P = 0.215) in presence of owner/handler, representing the “secure base effect.”

Despite the lack of statistical differences, the formulated hypothesis may be not completely rejected, as a trend of a higher attachment in search and rescue dogs existed. It can be concluded that in carefully owned dogs, the level of attachment is increased by working as a search and rescue dog, but the difference does not lead to statistically relevant results.

Theory of mind in dogs?: examining method and concept.

Horowitz, A.
Theory of mind in dogs?: examining method and concept.

Learning and Behvior (impact factor: 1.52). 07/2011; 39(4):314-7. DOI:10.3758/s13420-011-0041-7    

Abstract

In line with other research, Udell, Dorey, and Wynne's (in press) finding that dogs and wolves pass on some trials of a putative theory-of-mind test and fail on others is as informative about the methods and concepts of the research as about the subjects. This commentary expands on these points. The intertrial differences in the target article demonstrate how critical the choice of cues is in experimental design; the intersubject-group differences demonstrate how life histories can interact with experimental design. Even the best-designed theory-of-mind tests have intractable logical problems. Finally, these and previous research results call for the introduction of an intermediate stage of ability, a rudimentary theory of mind, to describe subjects' performance.          

Early prediction of adult behaviour in potential guide dogs

M.E. Goddard, R.G. Beilharz

Early prediction of adult behaviour in potential guide dogs

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 15, Issue 3, June 1986, Pages 247–260

Abstract

Between 4 weeks and 6 months of age, dogs were subjected to a battery of behavioural tests. The ability of these tests to predict fearfulness, activity and learning ability of the dogs when adult was assessed. Consistent individual differences in fearfulness were apparent at about 8 weeks of age, and the ability to predict adult fearfulness increased with age. The most useful tests involved responses to a strange person, a strange dog, a strange place and certain unusual objects. There appears to be genetic variation between dogs in fearfulness when young, but genetic selection against fearfulness would be more accurate if carried out in adult dogs rather than in young dogs. Consistent individual differences in activity from 4 weeks of age were found, but this behaviour correlated poorly with the activity of the dogs when adult. Puppies responded to fear by inhibiting movement. None of the tests used predicted the dogs' performance on specific learning tasks.