Breeding dogs for beauty and behaviour: Why scientists need to do more to develop valid and reliable behaviour assessments for dogs kept as companions

Effects of Breeding for Looks Rather than Behavior

Tammie King, Linda C. Marston, Pauleen C. Bennett

Breeding dogs for beauty and behaviour: Why scientists need to do more to develop valid and reliable behaviour assessments for dogs kept as companions

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 137, Issues 1–2, February 2012, Pages 1–12

Abstract

In the past, dogs were bred to perform specific utilitarian roles. Nowadays, the dog's most common role is that of human companion. Our world has changed dramatically since the first dog breeds were developed, yet many of these existing breeds remain popular as companions. While dogs kept as companions can provide a range of benefits to humans, in some cases the relationship between dog and human can be tenuous or even dangerous. Many dogs exhibit behaviours their owners consider undesirable and these dogs may cause disruption and injury to humans and other animals. As a consequence, many are relinquished to shelters. It is proposed that some of this unsuitable behaviour may be the result of inappropriate dog-owner matching, made more likely by the general change in the role of dogs, from working dog to companion animal, coupled with a strong tendency for modern owners and breeders to select dogs primarily on the basis of morphological, rather than behavioural, characteristics. This paper highlights how roles for dogs have changed and the importance of taking physical health and behaviour, as well as perceived beauty, into consideration when breeding and selecting dogs as companions. The measurement of behaviour and limitations of existing canine behaviour assessments are discussed. Finally, it is suggested that scientific development of accurate behavioural assessments, able to identify desirable canine behavioural traits, would provide invaluable tools for a range of dog-related organisations.

A friend or an enemy? Dogs’ reaction to an unfamiliar person showing behavioural cues of threat and friendliness at different times

Dogs and Strangers

Judit Vas, József Topál, Márta Gácsi, Ádám Miklósi, Vilmos Csányi

A friend or an enemy? Dogs’ reaction to an unfamiliar person showing behavioural cues of threat and friendliness at different times

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 94, Issues 1–2, October 2005, Pages 99–115

Abstract

Responsiveness of adult pet dogs (Canis familiaris) to an unfamiliar human was observed in two studies. Subjects were faced with an approaching woman (Stranger) who showed definite signs of friendliness and threat during alternate approaches. Observations consisted of two episodes: the Stranger either approached the dog in normal speed of walk while talking to it and finally petted it gently (Friendly approach episode) or she moved slowly and haltingly and looked steadily into the eyes of the dog without any verbal communication (Threatening approach episode).

In the first study 30 dogs of 19 different breeds were tested in the two episodes in a balanced sequential order. The dogs acted appropriately according to the different human behaviour cues. The order of the Friendly/Threatening approaches had no significant effect on the dogs’ responsivity.

In the second experiment 60 dogs of three breed groups (20 Belgian shepherds, 20 retrievers and 20 sled dogs) were first ‘greeted friendly’ and then approached ‘threateningly’ by the same Stranger. Results show significant breed specific differences in the responsivity when dogs faced an apparent switch of the human behaviour cues. Compared to retrievers and sled dogs, Belgian shepherds more frequently changed their response, showing passive or active avoidance or sign of aggression when approached threateningly.

While sex differences were not found, breed comparisons suggest that selective breeding (i.e. for hunting or shepherd work) influenced the dogs’ sensitivity to human social cues in different ways. Results also support the hypothesis that human influence (domestication) has led to extreme flexibility of the dogs’ situation-relevant behaviour while interacting with an unfamiliar human.

Behaviour of smaller and larger dogs: Effects of training methods, inconsistency of owner behaviour and level of engagement in activities with the dog

Behavior of Smaller and Larger Dogs

Christine Arhant, Hermann Bubna-Littitz, Angela Bartels, Andreas Futschik, Josef Troxler

Behaviour of smaller and larger dogs: Effects of training methods, inconsistency of owner behaviour and level of engagement in activities with the dog

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 123, Issues 3–4, March 2010, Pages 131–142

Abstract

The owner's behaviour is regarded to be a possible cause of unfavourable behaviour such as poor obedience or excitability in smaller dogs. The aim of this study was to investigate whether owner behaviour such as use of training methods, inconsistency in the owner's behaviour or engagement in shared activities differs between owners of smaller (<20 kg) and larger dogs (≥20 kg) and whether associations between the owner's and the dog's behaviour in smaller dogs differ from those in larger dogs. For this purpose, a questionnaire-based survey via postal mailing was conducted in an urban and suburban population of pet dog owners (response rate: 28%). Statistical analysis of 1276 questionnaires involved descriptive statistics, Chi²-test, t-tests and Spearman correlations. Our results confirm that smaller dogs are seen as less obedient (P < 0.001), more aggressive and excitable (P < 0.001) and more anxious and fearful (P < 0.001). Smaller dog owners reported being more inconsistent in interactions with their dog (P < 0.001) and engaging less in training and play activities (P < 0.001) than larger dog owners. More consistent owner behaviour (r_s = −0.4, P < 0.001) and more frequent engagement in training and play activities (r_s = 0.4, P < 0.001) correlated with better obedience in smaller dogs. No marked differences were found in the types of training methods used with smaller and larger dogs, but owners of smaller dogs reported slightly less use of punishment (P = 0.007). In smaller and larger dogs, a more frequent use of punishment was associated with increased aggression and excitability (smaller: r_s = 0.3, P < 0.001; larger: r_s = 0.2, P < 0.001) as was a more frequent use of reward-based responses to unwanted dog behaviour such as calming or distracting the dog (r_s = 0.2, P < 0.001). The main result of our study was that increased anxiety and fear was related to a more frequent use of punishment in smaller (r_s = 0.2, P < 0.001) but not in larger dogs. We conclude that smaller dog owners could significantly improve obedience in their dogs by being more consistent in interactions and engaging regularly in play and training activities with them. Behavioural problems could be reduced by avoiding habits of punishment that might reinforce fear or fear-related aggression.

Eliminatory behaviour of domestic dogs in an urban environment

James B. Reid, David F. Chantrey, C. Davie

Eliminatory behaviour of domestic dogs in an urban environment

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 12, Issue 3, April 1984, Pages 279–287

Abstract

Although dogs are valuable, indeed essential, members of society, they sometimes cause problems of an aesthetic, environmental or public health nature arising from their eliminatory habits. To identify which kinds of dog are more likely to be responsible for these problems, defaecation and urination by domestic dogs under varying degrees of human control were studied in the field. Observations were made between February 1980 and November 1981 in 2 streets, 2 landscaped parks and 2 large rough grass areas. The dogs most likely to defaecate in these public places were those who were accompanied by their owner, but not restricted by being on a lead. There was also an inverse correlation between the number of visits made by dogs on a lead to, and faeces density in, the study sites. Generally, the dogs responsible for most urination were discovered to be those off rather than on a lead, males rather than females, and pedigree males rather than mongrel males. Explanations of these findings, and suggestions for minimising dog fouling of the environment, are offered.

Physical size matters in the domestic dog's (Canis lupus familiaris) ability to use human pointing cues

William S. Helton, Nicole D. Helton

Physical size matters in the domestic dog's (Canis lupus familiaris) ability to use human pointing cues

Behavioural Processes, Volume 85, Issue 1, September 2010, Pages 77–79

Abstract

Researchers have reported differences between breeds of dogs in their ability to utilize human gestures (Wobber et al., 2009). These reports could either be the result of underlying differences in inherent communication abilities or differences in physical capacities amongst breeds. One physical difference between breeds which may make a difference in using visual cues is relative size. Larger dogs should, all other things being equal, have greater inter-ocular distances and this may improve their visual abilities for some tasks. This hypothesis was tested in the present study by comparing the performance of larger (>22.7 kg) and smaller (<22.7 kg) dogs on a pointing choice task. Larger dogs did perform better on this task than smaller dogs (P = .03). Researchers need to be careful when making comparisons between breeds to first consider physical differences before assuming any inherent cognitive differences.

Breed and sex differences in the behavioural attributes of specialist search dogs—a questionnaire survey of trainers and handlers

Nicola J Rooney, John W.S Bradshaw

Breed and sex differences in the behavioural attributes of specialist search dogs—a questionnaire survey of trainers and handlers

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 86, Issues 1–2, 20 May 2004, Pages 123–135

Abstract

The behavioural characteristics of specialist search dogs were examined using a survey of 244 dog handlers and trainers. The English Springer Spaniel was the most common breed, followed by the Labrador Retriever, cross breeds and the Border Collie. Individuals of these four breeds varied significantly on 5 out of 30 characteristics, as rated by their handlers, namely; tendency to be distracted when searching, agility, motivation to obtain food, independence, and stamina. English Springer Spaniels and Border Collies scored significantly closer to ideal levels than did Labrador Retrievers and cross breeds, for several of these characteristics. Overall satisfaction with the handler’s own dog(s) did not differ between the four most common breeds and was also unaffected by the dog’s sex. However, males and females did differ in their ratings for one characteristic; males were rated higher than females, which were rated closer to the ideal, for aggression towards other dogs. Overall, there appeared to be little difference between the sexes in their suitability for search work.

Reported behaviour problems in pet dogs in Denmark: age distribution and influence of breed and gender

Jørgen Damkjer Lund, Jens Frederik Agger, Klaus S. Vestergaard

Reported behaviour problems in pet dogs in Denmark: age distribution and influence of breed and gender

Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Volume 28, Issue 1, August 1996, Pages 33–48

Abstract

In the period 1987–1991 the consultant service established by the Danish Animal Welfare Society and the Danish Civil Dog Training Association reported 3975 problems in relation to pet dogs in Denmark. With nine categories of problem behaviour a total of 2719 problems were recorded in 2238 dogs. The data were analysed for the influence of breed, gender and age on the risk of developing behaviour problems. The analysis was designed as a case-control study using two control groups: (1) dogs registered by Danish Kennel Club in a 5-year period and (2) dogs treated at The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Copenhagen, Denmark in a 4-month period. Thirteen breeds or breed groups including mixed breeds were compared with a reference group consisting of Labrador Retrievers. Compared with the reference group, Alsatians seemed to have higher risks of aggression towards other dogs, aggression towards strangers and general anxiety. For Cocker Spaniels higher risks of aggression towards the owner, aggression towards strangers and indoor urination/defecation were found. Collies seemed to have higher risks of aggression towards strangers, indoor urination/defecation and general anxiety. Furthermore, a higher risk of general anxiety was found in Poodles and Fox Terriers. Generally, Dachshunds, a group consisting of all terriers excluding Fox Terriers and mixed breeds, seemed to have a low risk of behaviour problems. Compared with females, males seemed to have a lower risk of general anxiety and a higher risk of problems related to lack of training and all kinds of aggression. About 80% of the behaviour problems were reported within the first 3 years of life. Only 5.5% of the dogs were suggested to be or were in fact euthanized.

Breed differences in dogs’ (Canis familiaris) gaze to the human face

Adriana Jakovcevic, Angel M. Elgier, Alba E. Mustaca, Mariana Bentosela

Breed differences in dogs’ (Canis familiaris) gaze to the human face

Behavioural Processes, Volume 84, Issue 2, June 2010, Pages 602–607

Abstract

Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) have been submitted to a vast process of artificial selection and to date, there are hundreds of breeds that differ in their physical and behavioral features. In addition, dogs possess important skills to communicate with humans. Previous evidence indicates that those abilities are related to the domestication process and are modulated by instrumental learning processes. Very few studies, however, have evaluated breed differences in the use and learning of interspecific communicative responses. In Study 1 Retrievers, German Shepherds and Poodles were compared in the acquisition and extinction of their gaze toward the human face, in a conflict situation involving food within sight but out of reach. The groups did not differ in the acquisition of the response, but throughout the extinction phase Retrievers gazed to the human significantly more than the other groups. In Study 2, similar results were obtained in a test without any previous explicit training. These results suggest that these three major popular breeds differ in gazing to humans in a communicative situation.

The pet dogs ability for learning from a human demonstrator in a detour task is independent from the breed and age

Péter Pongrácz, Ádám Miklósi, Viktória Vida, Vilmos Csányi

The pet dogs ability for learning from a human demonstrator in a detour task is independent from the breed and age

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 90, Issues 3–4, March 2005, Pages 309–323

Abstract

There are many indications and much practical knowledge about the different tasks which various breeds of dogs are selected for. Correspondingly these different breeds are known to possess different physical and mental abilities. We hypothesized that commonly kept breeds will show differences in their problem solving ability in a detour task around a V-shaped fence, and also, that breed differences will affect their learning ability from a human demonstrator, who demonstrates a detour around the fence. Subjects were recruited in Hungarian pet dog schools. We compared the results of the 10 most common breeds in our sample when they were tested in the detour task without human demonstration. There was no significant difference between the latencies of detour, however, there was a trend that German Shepherd dogs were the quickest and Giant Schnauzers were the slowest in this test. For testing the social learning ability of dogs we formed three breed groups (“utility”, “shepherd” and “hunting”). There were no significant differences between these, all the breed groups learned equally well from the human demonstrator. However, we found that dogs belonging to the “shepherd” group looked back more frequently to their owner than the dogs in the “hunting” group. Further, we have found that the age of pet dogs did not affect their social learning ability in the detour task. Our results showed that the pet status of a dog has probably a stronger effect on its cognitive performance and human related behaviour than its age or breed. These results emphasize that socialization and common activities with the dog might overcome the possible breed differences, if we give the dogs common problem solving, or social learning tasks.

Behavioural differences between three breed groups of hunting dogs confronted with domestic sheep

Frank O. Christiansen, Morten Bakken, Bjarne O. Braastad

Behavioural differences between three breed groups of hunting dogs confronted with domestic sheep

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 72, Issue 2, 26 April 2001, Pages 115–129

Abstract

When running free in open fields, domestic dogs occasionally display predatory behaviour towards domestic sheep. This has not yet been studied scientifically. The aim of the present study was to investigate the inclination to chase sheep in three breed groups of hunting dogs that are most frequently used in areas with grazing sheep. We studied 41 elkhounds, 29 hare hunting dogs and 68 English setters. Behaviours indicative of motivation for chasing or attacking sheep were examined in three different ways. A path test examined functional traits such as hunting ability, contact willingness, reactivity to sudden noise, and response towards a lone sheep. In a sheep confrontation test, loose-leashed dogs were observed in a fenced enclosure with sheep and given electric shocks through an electronic dog collar if within 1–2 m from the sheep. A questionnaire to the dog owners supplied information on their dog’s previous experience with sheep and behavioural responses to various types of novel stimuli. No significant sex differences were found. The elkhounds showed the highest interest in a lone sheep in the path test, and displayed the highest initial hunting motivation, the highest percentage of dogs starting a sheep attack, the highest attack severity, and were most frequently given el. shocks. The hare hunting dogs were intermediate, while setters showed the lowest values for these variables. Dogs reported as showing low fearfulness more frequently acted as potential sheep chasers in the tests. Dogs up to 3 years of age showed a more pronounced initial hunting motivation and more frequent attacks than older dogs, although there were no age differences in the number of el. shocks given in the test. The latter may be related to the more frequent abruption of attacks among younger dogs. The main factors predicting a high hunting motivation and attack severity were lack of previous opportunity to chase sheep, low fearfulness towards gunshots and unfamiliar people, and general interest in sheep shown when encountering them. Probability of sheep chasing differed between dog breeds and age groups. Previous experience and certain character traits were indicative of a high predatory motivation towards sheep.

Trainability and boldness traits differ between dog breed clusters based on conventional breed categories and genetic relatedness

Borbála Turcsán, Enikő Kubinyi, Ádám Miklósi

Trainability and boldness traits differ between dog breed clusters based on conventional breed categories and genetic relatedness.

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 132, Issues 1–2, June 2011, Pages 61–70

Abstract

Modern dog breeding has given rise to more than 400 breeds differing both in morphology and behaviour. Traditionally, kennel clubs have utilized an artificial category system based on the morphological similarity and historical function of each dog breed. Behavioural comparisons at the breed-group level produced ambiguous results as to whether the historical function still has an influence on the breed-typical behaviour. Recent genetic studies have uncovered genetic relatedness between dog breeds, which can be independent from their historical function and may offer an alternative explanation of behavioural differences among breeds. This exploratory study aimed to investigate the behaviour profiles of 98 breeds, and the behavioural differences among conventional breed groups based on historical utility and among genetic breed clusters. Owners of 5733 dogs (98 breeds) filled out an online questionnaire in German. Breed trait scores on trainability, boldness, calmness and dog sociability were calculated by averaging the scores of all individuals of the breed. Breeds were ranked on the four traits and a cluster analysis was performed to explore behavioural similarity between breeds.

We found that two of the behaviour traits (trainability and boldness) significantly differed both among the conventional and the genetic breed groups. Using the conventional classification we revealed that Herding dogs were more trainable than Hounds, Working dogs, Toy dogs and Non-sporting dogs; Sporting dogs were also more trainable than Non-sporting dogs. In parallel, Terriers were bolder than Hounds and Herding dogs. Regarding genetic relatedness, breeds with ancient Asian or African origin (Ancient breeds) were less trainable than breeds in the Herding/sighthound cluster and the Hunting breeds. Breeds in the Mastiff/terrier cluster were bolder than the Ancient breeds, the breeds in the Herding/sighthound cluster and the Hunting breeds. Six breed clusters were created on the basis of behavioural similarity. All the conventional and genetic groups had representatives in at least three of these clusters. Thus, the behavioural breed clusters showed poor correspondence to both the functional and genetic categorisation, which may reflect the effect of recent selective processes. Behavioural breed clusters can provide a more reliable characterization of the breeds’ current typical behaviour.

Breed differences in dogs sensitivity to human points: A meta-analysis

Nicole R. Dorey, Monique A.R. Udell, Clive D.L. Wynne

Breed differences in dogs sensitivity to human points: A meta-analysis

Behavioural Processes, Volume 81, Issue 3, July 2009, Pages 409–415

Abstract

The last decade has seen a substantial increase in research on the behavioral and cognitive abilities of pet dogs, Canis familiaris. The most commonly used experimental paradigm is the object-choice task in which a dog is given a choice of two containers and guided to the reinforced object by human pointing gestures. We review here studies of this type and attempt a meta-analysis of the available data. In the meta-analysis breeds of dogs were grouped into the eight categories of the American Kennel Club, and into four clusters identified by Parker and Ostrander [Parker, H.G., Ostrander, E.A., 2005. Canine genomics and genetics: running with the pack. PLoS Genet. 1, 507–513] on the basis of a genetic analysis. No differences in performance between breeds categorized in either fashion were identified. Rather, all dog breeds appear to be similarly and highly successful in following human points to locate desired food. We suggest this result could be due to the paucity of data available in published studies, and the restricted range of breeds tested.