Dog behaviour on walks and the effect of use of the leash

Is this really necessary?

Carri Westgarth, Robert M. Christley, Gina L. Pinchbeck, Rosalind M. Gaskell, Susan Dawson, John W.S. Bradshaw

Dog behaviour on walks and the effect of use of the leash

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 125, Issues 1–2, June 2010, Pages 38–46

Abstract

This paper describes how often pet dogs interact with other dogs, people and the environment, whilst being walked. Such interactions may involve aggression or the transmission of infectious disease. We also assessed the effect of the use of a leash as a modifier of these outcomes. In study one, the behaviour of pet dogs being walked in popular public walking areas was observed (286 observations). Interactions with people were much rarer than interactions with dogs. Multivariable modelling suggested that percentage duration spent sniffing the ground was associated with the UK Kennel Club Breed Type, and whether the dog was observed urinating. Gundogs were observed to sniff more than other breed types. In study two, dogs (n = 10) were filmed twice walking along a pre-defined route, alternately once on leash and once off leash, in order to assess the effects of leash use on interactions between the subject dog and any other dog or person encountered. Multilevel modelling suggested that if either dog was on the leash, then the likelihood of an interaction with a dog occurring was reduced. There was no evidence for statistical interactions between these variables, therefore the effect of the leash on one dog did not seem to be influenced by whether the other dog was on or off leash. We conclude that in circumstances where interactions need to be prevented, such as to reduce spread of infectious diseases during an outbreak, both dogs should be leashed.

Survey of the use and outcome of confrontational and non-confrontational training methods in client-owned dogs showing undesired behaviors

Confrontational Behavior Modification

Meghan E. Herron, Frances S. Shofer, Ilana R. Reisner

Survey of the use and outcome of confrontational and non-confrontational training methods in client-owned dogs showing undesired behaviors

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 117, Issues 1–2, February 2009, Pages 47–54

Abstract

Prior to seeking the counsel of a veterinary behaviorist many dog owners have attempted behavior modification techniques suggested by a variety of sources. Recommendations often include aversive training techniques which may provoke fearful or defensively aggressive behavior. The purpose of this study was to assess the behavioral effects and safety risks of techniques used historically by owners of dogs with behavior problems.

A 30-item survey of previous interventions was included in a behavioral questionnaire distributed to all dog owners making appointments at a referral behavior service over a 1-year period. For each intervention applied, owners were asked to indicate whether there was a positive, negative, or lack of effect on the dog's behavior, and whether aggressive behavior was seen in association with the method used. Owners were also asked to indicate the source of each recommendation. One-hundred-and-forty surveys were completed. The most frequently listed recommendation sources were “self” and “trainers”. Several confrontational methods such as “hit or kick dog for undesirable behavior” (43%), “growl at dog” (41%), “physically force the release of an item from a dog's mouth” (39%), “alpha roll” (31%), “stare at or stare [dog] down” (30%), “dominance down” (29%), and “grab dog by jowls and shake” (26%) elicited an aggressive response from at least a quarter of the dogs on which they were attempted. Dogs presenting for aggression to familiar people were more likely to respond aggressively to the confrontational techniques “alpha roll” and yelling “no” compared to dogs with other presenting complaints (P < 0.001). In conclusion, confrontational methods applied by dog owners before their pets were presented for a behavior consultation were associated with aggressive responses in many cases. It is thus important for primary care veterinarians to advise owners about risks associated with such training methods and provide guidance and resources for safe management of behavior problems.

A friend or an enemy? Dogs’ reaction to an unfamiliar person showing behavioural cues of threat and friendliness at different times

Dogs and Strangers

Judit Vas, József Topál, Márta Gácsi, Ádám Miklósi, Vilmos Csányi

A friend or an enemy? Dogs’ reaction to an unfamiliar person showing behavioural cues of threat and friendliness at different times

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 94, Issues 1–2, October 2005, Pages 99–115

Abstract

Responsiveness of adult pet dogs (Canis familiaris) to an unfamiliar human was observed in two studies. Subjects were faced with an approaching woman (Stranger) who showed definite signs of friendliness and threat during alternate approaches. Observations consisted of two episodes: the Stranger either approached the dog in normal speed of walk while talking to it and finally petted it gently (Friendly approach episode) or she moved slowly and haltingly and looked steadily into the eyes of the dog without any verbal communication (Threatening approach episode).

In the first study 30 dogs of 19 different breeds were tested in the two episodes in a balanced sequential order. The dogs acted appropriately according to the different human behaviour cues. The order of the Friendly/Threatening approaches had no significant effect on the dogs’ responsivity.

In the second experiment 60 dogs of three breed groups (20 Belgian shepherds, 20 retrievers and 20 sled dogs) were first ‘greeted friendly’ and then approached ‘threateningly’ by the same Stranger. Results show significant breed specific differences in the responsivity when dogs faced an apparent switch of the human behaviour cues. Compared to retrievers and sled dogs, Belgian shepherds more frequently changed their response, showing passive or active avoidance or sign of aggression when approached threateningly.

While sex differences were not found, breed comparisons suggest that selective breeding (i.e. for hunting or shepherd work) influenced the dogs’ sensitivity to human social cues in different ways. Results also support the hypothesis that human influence (domestication) has led to extreme flexibility of the dogs’ situation-relevant behaviour while interacting with an unfamiliar human.

Consistency of dogs’ reactions to threatening cues of an unfamiliar person

Judit Vas, József Topál, Borbála Győri, Ádám Miklósi

Consistency of dogs’ reactions to threatening cues of an unfamiliar person

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 112, Issues 3–4, August 2008, Pages 331–344

Abstract

Reliability is one of the most important aspects of the behaviour observations measuring personality traits in animals. The most fundamental way to test reliability is the assessment of the test–retest consistency. On the other hand, in situations where social interaction between a human participant and the animal subject is at the scope of the study, the behaviour of the humans in the test situation should be restricted by a set of rules. However, if more than one experimenter participates in the observations, the similarity of the behaviour of different persons is an important aspect of the reliability of the study.

In our first study we investigated the consistency of dogs’ behaviour during approach by a person in a friendly and in a threatening way, repeating the test either immediately after the first test or at least 6 months later. We found that the dogs’ sensitivity to the human's behavioural cues in this situation proved to be consistent over repetition when the second test was performed approximately 1 year after the first test, but it was not the case when the time elapsed between test occasions was a few seconds. The detailed analysis indicated that dogs performing extreme behaviour (friendly or threatening) tended to show more conservative responses than dogs showing intermediate reactions when the stranger approached threateningly. Nonetheless, the reaction of the dogs failed to be in accordance with the opinion of the owners about the dogs’ behaviour in similar situations in everyday life.

In the second study we examined the consistency of the dogs’ behaviour in the same situation when confronted with two different unfamiliar persons immediately after each other. The consistency of the dogs’ response to the two experimenters was found to be reliably high.

In sum, this test procedure proved to be reliable enough to be a valuable measure of a definite part of the personality characters of dogs.

Canine Aggression Toward Familiar People: A New Look at an Old Problem

Andrew U. Luescher, DVM, PhD, Ilana R. Reisner, DVM, PhD

Canine Aggression Toward Familiar People: A New Look at an Old Problem

Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, Volume 38, Issue 5, September 2008, Pages 1107–1130

Dogs that are aggressive toward their owners have long been regarded as being dominant. This article presents scientific evidence that does not support this claim. Based on this evidence, the authors present an alternative explanation for canine aggression toward owners and outline a treatment plan.

* This article is great, despite its vague abstract

Male and female dogs respond differently to men and women

Deborah L. Wells, Peter G. Hepper

Male and female dogs respond differently to men and women

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 61, Issue 4, 28 January 1999, Pages 341–349

Abstract

The effect of canine and/or human gender on the response of the domestic dog towards humans has been little studied. This study investigated the reactions of male and female dogs housed in an animal rescue shelter towards the presence of men and women to determine how a dog's response towards a person was influenced by canine and human gender. The response of 30 dogs housed in the Ulster Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (USPCA) to each of six people (three men and three women), who stood individually for a period of 2 min at the front of the dog's cage, was observed. The amount of time that the dog spent at the front of the cage, barking, looking towards the human, wagging its tail, and engaged in activities of sitting, standing, moving, resting, was recorded. Canine gender exerted an influence on the amount of time that dogs spent looking towards the humans. Female dogs showed a greater decrease in the amount of time they spent looking towards the humans over the course of the testing than male dogs. Human gender had an effect on both dog barking, and eye orientation. Dogs showed a stronger decrease in their barking and their tendency to look towards the human whenever the subject was a woman than a man, suggesting that dogs may be more defensively-aggressive towards men than women. There was no interaction between canine and human gender on the dog's response towards the persons. This study indicated that both canine and human gender influence certain elements of a dog's response towards the presence of a human. The findings may have practical implications for the re-housing of dogs from rescue shelters.

Refutation of the stereotype of a “killer dog” in light of the behavioral interpretation of human corpses biting by domestic dogs

Krzysztof Maksymowicz, Krzysztof Marycz, Joanna Czogała, Tomasz Jurek

Refutation of the stereotype of a “killer dog” in light of the behavioral interpretation of human corpses biting by domestic dogs

Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, Volume 6, Issue 1, January–February 2011, Pages 50–56

Abstract

Postmortem bite injuries caused by domestic dogs are not very common, but because of their special character and concomitant occurrence, explaining them requires extensive forensic expertise and knowledge of the basics of animal behavior. The authors have analyzed reasons for the damage of human body caused by the dogs, with suspicion of fatal biting. Characteristics of the wounds, the description of the crime scene, the available psychophysical data of the animals, and the likely motives for the behavior exhibited by the dogs were examined. In the course of the study, it was concluded that the wounds were postmortem in nature and the crime scene character was atypical for the satisfaction of the scavenging instinct. Moreover, detailed analysis of the cases described in the text later revealed that uncharacteristic anxiety reactions with the sequent satisfaction of the exaggerated form of care-giving and the loyalty to the guardians were the most likely motivations for the actions of the dogs in the face of human death.

Genetic variation in aggression-related traits in Golden Retriever dogs

Anna-Elisa Liinamo, Linda van den Berg, Peter A.J. Leegwater, Matthijs B.H. Schilder, Johan A.M. van Arendonk, Bernard A. van Oost

Genetic variation in aggression-related traits in Golden Retriever dogs

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 104, Issues 1–2, April 2007, Pages 95–106

Abstract

In this study, heritabilities of several measures of aggression were estimated in a group of 325 Golden Retrievers, using the Restricted Maximum Likelihood method. The studied measures were obtained either through owner opinions or by using the Canine Behavioural Assessment and Research Questionnaire (CBARQ). The aim of the study was to determine which of the aggression measures showed sufficient genetic variation to be useful as phenotypes for future molecular genetic studies on aggression in this population. The most reliable heritability estimates seemed to be those for simple dog owner impressions of human- and dog-directed aggression, with heritability estimates of 0.77 (S.E. 0.09) and 0.81 (S.E. 0.09), respectively. In addition, several CBARQ-derived measures related to human-directed aggression showed clear genetic differences between the dogs. The correlation between the estimated breeding values for owner impressions on human- and dog-directed aggression was relatively low. The low correlation suggests that these two traits have a partially different genetic background. They will therefore have to be treated as separate traits in further genetic studies.

Factors associated with aggressive responses in pet dogs

Yuying Hsu, Liching Sun

Factors associated with aggressive responses in pet dogs

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Volume 123, Issues 3–4, March 2010, Pages 108–123

Abstract

This study used The Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) and regression models to explore the relative importance of dog and owner characteristics, living environment and owner–dog interaction to household dogs’ aggressiveness towards strangers, owners and other dogs. Exploratory factor analysis revealed 10 interpretable factors from the Chinese translation of C-BARQ: stranger-directed aggression, owner-directed aggression, dog-directed aggression, social fear, nonsocial fear, separation-related behavior, attachment or attention-seeking behavior, trainability, excitability and pain sensitivity. The factor structure of our study largely resembled that reported in Hsu and Serpell (2003) and van den Berg et al. (2006; Dutch translation of C-BARQ). All factors of the translated C-BARQ have adequate reliability (Cronbach α: 0.74–0.93) and are thus suitable for measuring temperament traits in Taiwan's pet dogs. Intrinsic and environmental variables important to the three aggression subscales were not entirely the same, but breed (P ≤ 0.020) and physical punishment (P ≤ 0.053) had significant relationships with all of them. Golden Retriever scored the lowest while dogs subjected to physical reprimands scored significantly higher on aggression subscales. In addition, higher scores on stranger-directed aggression were associated (P ≤ 0.027) with living in rural areas, in houses with yard space and with more household members and being acquired either as puppies or for guarding purposes. Higher scores on owner-directed aggression were associated (P ≤ 0.040) with male and older dogs, being neutered/spayed, having female owners, fewer other dogs in the household and being kept outside the house. Higher scores on dog-directed aggression, on the other hand, were associated (P ≤ 0.050) with living in houses with either yard space or more household members and with spending less time with owners. Stranger- and dog-directed aggression had more important intrinsic and environmental variables common to them than did owner-directed aggression, which suggests that aggression towards owners may be regulated by different mechanisms from aggression towards strangers and other dogs. Although no causal relationship between dog aggression and environmental variables can be implied from observational studies, the results of this and other studies lend support to the possibility of reducing dogs’ aggressive responses through proper management by owners.

The personality of “aggressive” and “non-aggressive” dog owners

Deborah L. Wells, Peter G. Hepper

The personality of “aggressive” and “non-aggressive” dog owners

Personality and Individual Differences, Volume 53, Issue 6, October 2012, Pages 770–773

Abstract

The relationship between pet-keeping and owner personality has attracted considerable attention. Little focus, however, has been directed towards the personality of pet owners in relation to the type of pet owned. This study therefore explored the personality of pet owners in relation to the type of dog breed owned, focusing specifically on owners of breeds widely considered to be “aggressive” versus those more generally perceived as “non-aggressive”. One hundred and forty seven owners of “aggressive” (German shepherd dogs, Rottweilers) or “non-aggressive” (Labrador retrievers, Golden retrievers) dog breeds completed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire short scale. Breed of dog owned was significantly related to owners’ psychoticism scores, with people who kept “aggressive” dogs having significantly higher scores on this trait than owners of “non-aggressive” dogs. Dog breed ownership was not significantly related to neuroticism, extraversion or lie scale scores, although male owners of “aggressive” dogs were found to be significantly less neurotic than women who kept “aggressive” or “non-aggressive” dogs. Overall, findings suggest that there is a significant relationship between dog breed ownership and specific personality traits, with owners of breeds widely considered to be “aggressive” harbouring more psychotic tendencies than people who choose to keep dogs with a reputedly less aggressive temperament.